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Nanoparticles: 346 3D models

Liposomes, LNPs, polymer, gold, silica, iron-oxide, carbon and protein nanoparticles (real sizes 1–500 nm). Each one is a ready-made 3D model you can turn, recolour and place in a figure — open BioDioRama and type its name in the Library search.

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Liposomes & vesicles · Lipid nanoparticles (LNP) · Solid lipid particles & emulsions · Micelles & polymersomes · Polymeric nanoparticles · Dendrimers · Gold & metal nanoparticles · Magnetic nanoparticles · Quantum dots & fluorescent particles · Silica nanoparticles · Carbon & 2D nanomaterials · MOFs & inorganic crystals · Exosomes & biomimetic particles · Protein cages, VLPs & lipoproteins · DNA & RNA nanostructures · Polyplexes, nanogels & conjugates · Microparticles, bubbles & micromotors

Liposomes & vesicles 30

Liposome (conventional) — A lipid bilayer vesicle with a watery core — the first nanomedicine carrier. Cut open to show drug in the core. Looks the same as: Liposome, 100 nm. (≈ 50–200 nm)
PEGylated (stealth) liposome — A liposome coated with PEG chains that hide it from the immune system, so it circulates for days. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Doxil-type liposome (doxorubicin) — PEGylated liposome with doxorubicin precipitated as a rod-like gel crystal inside — the structure seen in cryo-TEM of Doxil. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Immunoliposome — PEGylated liposome carrying antibodies on its surface to target a receptor on diseased cells. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Fab-targeted liposome — Liposome decorated with antibody fragments — smaller and less immunogenic than whole antibodies. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Folate-targeted liposome — Folic acid on PEG tethers binds the folate receptor that many tumours over-express. (≈ 50–200 nm)
RGD-peptide liposome — Liposome carrying RGD peptides that bind integrins on tumour blood vessels. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Cell-penetrating peptide liposome — TAT-type cationic peptides help the liposome cross cell membranes. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Transferrin-targeted liposome — Transferrin on the surface binds the transferrin receptor — a route across the blood–brain barrier. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Thermosensitive liposome (releasing) — Heated a few degrees above body temperature, the membrane opens and dumps its drug — slide "Membrane opening" to animate release. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Cationic liposome — Positively charged lipids (DOTAP, DOTMA) that bind and carry negatively charged DNA or RNA. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Lipoplex (lipid–DNA complex) — Cationic lipids and DNA pack into a multilamellar onion with DNA between the bilayers. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Anionic liposome — Negatively charged lipids (phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylserine) change protein binding and uptake. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Liposome with cholesterol — Cholesterol packed between phospholipids stiffens the bilayer and reduces leakage. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Liposome with drug in the bilayer — Water-insoluble drugs (e.g. paclitaxel, curcumin) dissolve in the hydrophobic middle of the membrane. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Co-delivery liposome (two drugs) — A water-soluble drug in the core and a hydrophobic drug in the bilayer, delivered together. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Protein-loaded liposome — Enzymes or antigens trapped in the aqueous core. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Multilamellar vesicle (MLV) — Several concentric bilayers like an onion — what forms when dried lipids are simply hydrated. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Liposome, 50 nm — A small, highly curved liposome that extravasates easily into tumours. (≈ 50 nm)
Liposome, 200 nm — A larger liposome that holds more drug but is cleared faster. (≈ 200 nm)
Liposome with metal-drug core — Drugs such as arsenic trioxide or platinum precipitated inside the core. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Small unilamellar vesicle (SUV) — A tiny, highly curved liposome (< 100 nm) made by sonication or extrusion. (≈ 20–100 nm)
Large unilamellar vesicle (LUV) — A single bilayer vesicle of 100–1000 nm, the usual extruded liposome. (≈ 100–1000 nm)
Giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) — A cell-sized vesicle used as a model membrane and artificial cell. (≈ 1–100 µm)
Multivesicular liposome (DepoFoam) — A foam of many non-concentric chambers inside one big vesicle for slow, sustained release. (≈ 5–50 µm)
Niosome — A vesicle made of non-ionic surfactants (e.g. Span, Tween) and cholesterol — a cheaper, more stable cousin of liposomes. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Transfersome (deformable vesicle) — An ultra-flexible vesicle with edge activators that squeezes through skin pores — set "Squash" to deform it. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Ethosome — Soft vesicle rich in ethanol that penetrates skin for transdermal delivery. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Virosome — A liposome carrying viral fusion proteins (influenza hemagglutinin) — used as vaccine and delivery vehicle. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Liposome with protein corona — Once in blood, proteins coat every nanoparticle: a tight "hard" corona and a looser "soft" corona. (≈ 50–200 nm)

Lipid nanoparticles (LNP) 14

mRNA lipid nanoparticle — The mRNA-vaccine particle: ionizable lipid, cholesterol, DSPC and PEG-lipid around mRNA held in inverted micelles. Cut open to see inside. (≈ 60–120 nm)
siRNA lipid nanoparticle — Onpattro-type LNP: short siRNA duplexes packed with MC3 ionizable lipid for liver gene silencing. (≈ 60–120 nm)
LNP with bleb — Cryo-EM shows many mRNA LNPs carry a water-filled bleb, a bilayer bulge holding extra mRNA. (≈ 60–120 nm)
LNP (amorphous core) — An electron-dense core where mRNA strands are tangled through the ionizable lipid. (≈ 60–120 nm)
LNP (inverse hexagonal core) — Some ionizable lipids pack into water channels in a hexagonal array, with nucleic acid in each channel. (≈ 60–120 nm)
CRISPR LNP (Cas9 mRNA + sgRNA) — One particle carrying Cas9 mRNA and guide RNA for in-vivo gene editing. (≈ 60–120 nm)
Self-amplifying RNA LNP — LNP carrying a long replicon RNA that copies itself inside the cell for a stronger, lower-dose vaccine. (≈ 60–120 nm)
Plasmid DNA LNP — LNP delivering a DNA plasmid for gene therapy. (≈ 60–120 nm)
Empty LNP — The lipid shell without nucleic acid — a control in experiments. (≈ 60–120 nm)
Antibody-targeted LNP — LNP with antibodies on its PEG layer to steer it to T cells or other cells beyond the liver. (≈ 60–120 nm)
GalNAc-targeted LNP — GalNAc sugars bind the asialoglycoprotein receptor of liver cells. (≈ 60–120 nm)
LNP with ApoE corona — In blood, LNPs pick up apolipoprotein E, which guides them into liver cells through the LDL receptor. (≈ 60–120 nm)
Mannosylated LNP — Mannose ligands target dendritic cells and macrophages for vaccines. (≈ 60–120 nm)
LNP with dense PEG — High PEG-lipid content gives smaller, stealthier particles (but slower uptake — the "PEG dilemma"). (≈ 60–120 nm)

Solid lipid particles & emulsions 10

Solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) — A core of solid, crystalline lipid stabilised by a surfactant layer; drug is trapped in the lipid matrix. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) — A solid lipid matrix with pockets of liquid oil, so it holds more drug and leaks less than an SLN. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Nanoemulsion droplet (oil-in-water) — A nano-sized oil droplet stabilised by surfactant — carries poorly soluble drugs (e.g. propofol, cyclosporin). (≈ 50–500 nm)
Double emulsion (W/O/W) — Water droplets inside an oil droplet inside water — used to encapsulate proteins in PLGA microspheres. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Lipid–polymer hybrid nanoparticle — A biodegradable polymer core (PLGA) wrapped in a lipid monolayer and PEG — stable like a polymer NP, biocompatible like a liposome. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Lipid nanocapsule — An oily core inside a rigid lipid/PEG-surfactant shell — between a micelle and a liposome. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Cubosome — A particle of bicontinuous cubic lipid phase: one continuous bilayer folded into a gyroid with two interwoven water networks. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Hexosome — A particle of inverse hexagonal lipid phase: parallel water channels in a lipid matrix. (≈ 50–500 nm)
PEGylated solid lipid nanoparticle — An SLN with PEG for longer circulation. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Targeted NLC — Nanostructured lipid carrier with targeting ligands. (≈ 50–500 nm)

Micelles & polymersomes 17

Polymeric micelle (PEG–PLA) — Amphiphilic block copolymers self-assemble: hydrophobic blocks form a drug-holding core, PEG blocks a water-loving corona. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Paclitaxel-loaded micelle — Genexol-PM-type polymeric micelle carrying paclitaxel in its core. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Surfactant micelle (SDS / Tween) — Small surfactant molecules with heads outward and tails meeting in the middle. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Reverse micelle — In oil, surfactants turn inside out and hold a tiny pool of water — a nanoreactor for enzymes. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Polyion complex (PIC) micelle — A charged block copolymer neutralises DNA or siRNA into a core, with PEG outside. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Core-crosslinked micelle — Crosslinks in the core stop the micelle falling apart when diluted in blood. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Filomicelle (worm-like micelle) — Long cylindrical micelles circulate up to a week and flow with blood like filamentous viruses. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Peptide amphiphile nanofibre — Peptide amphiphiles stack via β-sheets into long nanofibres that form bioactive gels. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Polymersome — A vesicle made of block copolymers — thicker and tougher than a lipid membrane. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Polymersome nanoreactor — A polymersome with channel proteins in its wall so substrates can reach enzymes inside. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Stomatocyte (bowl polymersome) — A polymersome folded into a bowl — used to build self-propelled nanomotors. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Star polymer — Many polymer arms radiating from a small core — a unimolecular micelle. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Bottlebrush polymer — Dense side chains on a backbone make a stiff, worm-like single molecule. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Hyperbranched polymer — A randomly branched, tree-like polymer — the cheap cousin of dendrimers. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Doxorubicin-loaded polymeric micelle — A PEG–poly(aspartate) micelle carrying doxorubicin (e.g. NK911). (≈ 10–100 nm)
Curcumin micelle — A polymeric micelle that solubilises curcumin. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Targeted polymeric micelle — A polymeric micelle with ligands on the ends of its PEG chains. (≈ 10–100 nm)

Polymeric nanoparticles 25

PLGA nanoparticle — A biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) sphere with drug dispersed through the matrix — the workhorse of polymer drug delivery. (≈ 50–500 nm)
PEG–PLGA nanoparticle — PLGA core with a PEG brush that reduces protein adsorption and clearance. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Antibody-conjugated PLGA nanoparticle — PEG–PLGA nanoparticle with antibodies for active targeting. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Protein-loaded PLGA nanoparticle — PLGA carrying a protein or vaccine antigen. (≈ 50–500 nm)
PLA nanoparticle — Polylactic acid nanoparticle — slower degrading than PLGA. (≈ 50–500 nm)
PCL nanoparticle — Polycaprolactone: a slowly degrading, hydrophobic polymer for long-term release. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Chitosan nanoparticle — Positively charged, mucoadhesive nanoparticle from crab-shell chitosan; often crosslinked with TPP. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Alginate nanoparticle — Seaweed polysaccharide gelled with calcium — gentle encapsulation for proteins. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Albumin nanoparticle (nab) — Paclitaxel bound to human serum albumin (Abraxane) — no toxic solvent needed. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Gelatin nanoparticle — Degradable protein nanoparticle that MMP enzymes break down in tumours. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Silk fibroin nanoparticle — Biocompatible silk protein particle for slow drug release. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Fluorescent polystyrene bead — A smooth latex bead loaded with dye — a size standard and model particle. (≈ 50–500 nm)
PEI nanoparticle — Polyethylenimine: strongly cationic polymer for gene delivery. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Polymeric nanocapsule — A thin polymer wall around an oily core that dissolves the drug. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Hollow polymer nanoparticle — An empty polymer shell — a template for loading after synthesis. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Core–shell nanoparticle — A distinct core and shell of two materials. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Yolk–shell nanoparticle — A loose core rattling inside a hollow shell. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Layer-by-layer nanoparticle — Alternating polycation and polyanion layers built around a core — each layer can hold a different drug. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Porous PLGA microparticle — Large porous particles for inhalation — light enough to reach deep in the lungs. (≈ 5–20 µm)
Janus particle — A particle with two different faces — different chemistry, charge or function on each side. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Polymer nanoparticle with magnetic cores — Iron-oxide nanocrystals embedded in a polymer matrix for magnetic guidance and MRI. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Shaped particle (rod) — Particles moulded into rods (PRINT technology) — shape changes flow, uptake and biodistribution. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Shaped particle (disc) — Disc-shaped particles mimic red blood cells and marginate towards vessel walls. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Shaped particle (cube) — A cube-shaped polymer particle. (≈ 50–500 nm)
Ellipsoidal nanoparticle — A stretched particle — elongated particles avoid uptake by macrophages. (≈ 50–500 nm)

Dendrimers 30

PAMAM dendrimer G0 — Generation 0 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 4 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 1.5 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G1 — Generation 1 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 8 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 2.2 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G2 — Generation 2 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 16 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 2.9 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G3 — Generation 3 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 32 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 3.6 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G4 — Generation 4 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 64 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 4.5 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G5 — Generation 5 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 128 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 5.4 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G6 — Generation 6 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 256 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 6.7 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G7 — Generation 7 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 512 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 8.1 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G8 — Generation 8 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 1024 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 9.7 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G9 — Generation 9 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 2048 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 11.4 nm)
PAMAM dendrimer G10 — Generation 10 poly(amidoamine) dendrimer: 4096 surface groups on a perfectly branched tree grown from an ethylenediamine core. (≈ 13.5 nm)
PPI dendrimer G1 — Generation 1 poly(propylene imine) dendrimer with 8 amine ends.
PPI dendrimer G2 — Generation 2 poly(propylene imine) dendrimer with 16 amine ends.
PPI dendrimer G3 — Generation 3 poly(propylene imine) dendrimer with 32 amine ends.
PPI dendrimer G4 — Generation 4 poly(propylene imine) dendrimer with 64 amine ends.
PPI dendrimer G5 — Generation 5 poly(propylene imine) dendrimer with 128 amine ends.
PEGylated PAMAM dendrimer — PEG on part of the surface hides the cationic charge and lowers toxicity.
Folate-targeted PAMAM dendrimer — G5 PAMAM with folic acid for tumour targeting.
Drug-loaded dendrimer — Drug molecules held in the internal voids of a G5 dendrimer.
Dendrimer–drug conjugate — Drug attached to the dendrimer surface through cleavable linkers.
Dendriplex (dendrimer–siRNA) — A cationic dendrimer binding negatively charged siRNA.
Carboxyl PAMAM G2.5 — Half-generation (G2.5) PAMAM dendrimer with negatively charged carboxylate ends — far less cytotoxic than amine-terminated dendrimers.
Carboxyl PAMAM G4.5 — Half-generation (G4.5) PAMAM dendrimer with negatively charged carboxylate ends — far less cytotoxic than amine-terminated dendrimers.
Carboxyl PAMAM G5.5 — Half-generation (G5.5) PAMAM dendrimer with negatively charged carboxylate ends — far less cytotoxic than amine-terminated dendrimers.
Carboxyl PAMAM G6.5 — Half-generation (G6.5) PAMAM dendrimer with negatively charged carboxylate ends — far less cytotoxic than amine-terminated dendrimers.
Hydroxyl PAMAM G3 — Neutral, hydroxyl-terminated G3 PAMAM that crosses biological barriers and targets activated microglia.
Hydroxyl PAMAM G4 — Neutral, hydroxyl-terminated G4 PAMAM that crosses biological barriers and targets activated microglia.
Hydroxyl PAMAM G5 — Neutral, hydroxyl-terminated G5 PAMAM that crosses biological barriers and targets activated microglia.
Poly-L-lysine dendrimer — A peptide dendrimer built from lysine branches (e.g. VivaGel).
Carboxyl PAMAM (G3.5) — Half-generation PAMAM with negatively charged carboxyl ends — less toxic.

Gold & metal nanoparticles 41

Gold nanoparticle (5 nm) — Tiny gold sphere — red colloidal gold — capped with citrate. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoparticle (20 nm, citrate) — The classic Turkevich gold colloid: citrate-capped spheres that make solutions ruby red. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Faceted gold nanoparticle — Real gold nanocrystals are faceted (icosahedral, decahedral) rather than perfectly round. (≈ 2–200 nm)
PEGylated gold nanoparticle — Gold sphere with a thiol-PEG corona for long circulation. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Antibody-conjugated gold nanoparticle — Gold nanoparticle with antibodies — the red label in lateral-flow (pregnancy, COVID) tests. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoparticle with protein corona — Gold sphere coated by serum proteins after contact with blood. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Thiol-capped gold nanoparticle — Gold sphere with a self-assembled monolayer of alkanethiols. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold@silica core–shell — A gold core in a glassy silica shell — stable and easy to functionalise. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod (aspect ratio 2) — A short gold rod; its plasmon absorbs red light. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod (aspect ratio 4) — Elongated gold rod made with CTAB; absorbs near-infrared light for photothermal therapy and imaging. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod (AR 2.5, ~650 nm plasmon) — A gold nanorod with aspect ratio 2.5; the longer the rod, the further its plasmon moves into the near-infrared. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod (AR 3, ~700 nm plasmon) — A gold nanorod with aspect ratio 3; the longer the rod, the further its plasmon moves into the near-infrared. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod (AR 5, ~900 nm plasmon) — A gold nanorod with aspect ratio 5; the longer the rod, the further its plasmon moves into the near-infrared. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod (AR 6, ~1000 nm plasmon) — A gold nanorod with aspect ratio 6; the longer the rod, the further its plasmon moves into the near-infrared. (≈ 2–200 nm)
PEGylated gold nanorod — Gold nanorod with CTAB replaced by PEG for in-vivo use. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Silica-coated gold nanorod — Gold nanorod in a mesoporous silica shell that can carry drugs. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanorod heating (photothermal) — Under near-infrared light the rod heats its surroundings — photothermal therapy. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Au@Ag core–shell nanorod — Gold rod coated with silver — sharper plasmon, used in SERS sensing. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanostar — A spiky gold particle whose tips concentrate light — bright in SERS and photothermal therapy. (≈ 2–200 nm)
PEGylated gold nanostar — Gold nanostar with a PEG coat. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoshell — A thin gold shell over a silica core, tuned to absorb near-infrared light (AuroShell). (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanocage — A hollow, porous gold box with open corners, made by galvanic replacement of silver cubes; can be filled with drug. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanocube — A gold cube with slightly rounded edges. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoprism — A flat triangular gold plate with snipped corners. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoplate (hexagonal) — A thin hexagonal gold platelet. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold bipyramid — A five-fold twinned bipyramid with sharp tips and a very narrow plasmon peak. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanowire — A long, thin gold wire. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanocluster Au₂₅(SR)₁₈ — An atomically precise gold cluster: an icosahedral Au₁₃ core wrapped in gold–thiolate staples. Fluorescent and renally cleared. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoparticle dimer — Two gold particles a few nanometres apart — light is squeezed into a "hot spot" between them. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Core–satellite assembly — Small particles tethered around a big one with DNA — a plasmonic ruler and sensor. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoparticle (50 nm) — A larger gold sphere that scatters strongly — dark-field imaging and lateral-flow labels. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold nanoparticle (100 nm) — A 100 nm gold sphere with a broad, red-shifted plasmon. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Silver nanoparticle — Antimicrobial silver nanosphere — releases Ag⁺ ions that kill bacteria. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Silver nanocube — Sharp-edged silver cube — the template for gold nanocages. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Silver nanoprism — Triangular silver plate with strong, tunable colour. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Silver nanowire — Pentagonal silver nanowire for flexible, transparent electrodes. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Platinum nanoparticle (nanozyme) — Platinum particle that mimics catalase and peroxidase enzymes. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Palladium nanocube — Palladium nanocube for catalysis and prodrug activation. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Copper nanoparticle — Copper nanoparticle — antimicrobial and used in cuproptosis research. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Gold–silver alloy nanoparticle — An alloy particle whose colour sits between gold and silver. (≈ 2–200 nm)
Spherical nucleic acid (gold core) — A gold core with a dense shell of radially arranged DNA strands; enters cells without transfection agents. (≈ 2–200 nm)

Magnetic nanoparticles 14

Superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticle (SPION) — A magnetite crystal in a dextran coat — MRI contrast agent (Feridex) and iron-replacement drug (Feraheme). (≈ 5–100 nm)
PEGylated SPION — Iron-oxide core with a PEG shell. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Antibody-targeted SPION — Magnetic nanoparticle with antibodies for magnetic cell separation or targeted imaging. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Large SPION (30 nm core) — A bigger iron-oxide core with stronger magnetisation — magnetic particle imaging and hyperthermia. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Folate-targeted SPION — Iron-oxide nanoparticle with folic acid for tumour MRI. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Ultrasmall iron-oxide nanoparticle (USPIO) — An iron-oxide core under 10 nm; long-circulating MRI agent for lymph nodes. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Iron-oxide nanocube — Cubic magnetite crystal — strong heating in alternating fields. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Octahedral magnetite nanoparticle — Magnetite crystal grown as an octahedron. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Fe₃O₄@SiO₂ core–shell — Magnetite core in a silica shell that can be functionalised or made porous. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Magnetic nanocluster — Many iron-oxide crystals packed in a polymer — a stronger magnetic response. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Magnetic bead (Dynabeads-type) — A micron-sized polymer bead loaded with iron-oxide grains, used to pull out cells and proteins with a magnet. (≈ 1–5 µm)
Magnetosome chain — Magnetotactic bacteria grow chains of magnetite crystals in membrane pockets to align with Earth's field. (≈ 5–100 nm)
SPION in a magnetic field — A magnetic nanoparticle with its dipole field lines. (≈ 5–100 nm)
Magnetic hyperthermia nanoparticle — In an alternating magnetic field the particle heats up and kills tumour cells around it. (≈ 5–100 nm)

Quantum dots & fluorescent particles 17

Quantum dot 470 nm (blue) — A CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanocrystal glowing blue; bigger dots emit redder light. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Quantum dot 525 nm (green) — A CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanocrystal glowing green; bigger dots emit redder light. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Quantum dot 565 nm (yellow) — A CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanocrystal glowing yellow; bigger dots emit redder light. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Quantum dot 605 nm (orange) — A CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanocrystal glowing orange; bigger dots emit redder light. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Quantum dot 655 nm (red) — A CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanocrystal glowing red; bigger dots emit redder light. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Quantum dot 705 nm (near-infrared) — A CdSe/ZnS core/shell nanocrystal glowing near-infrared; bigger dots emit redder light. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Quantum dot–streptavidin conjugate — Polymer-coated quantum dot carrying streptavidin to label biotinylated targets. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Antibody-labelled quantum dot — Quantum dot with antibodies for immunofluorescence. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Water-soluble quantum dot — Quantum dot wrapped in an amphiphilic polymer so it dissolves in water. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Carbon dot — A few-nanometre graphitic carbon particle with surface groups — cheap, non-toxic fluorescence. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Graphene quantum dot — A tiny flake of graphene that fluoresces. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Perovskite nanocrystal (CsPbBr₃) — A cube-shaped lead-halide perovskite crystal with very bright, narrow green emission. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Upconversion nanoparticle — A lanthanide-doped NaYF₄ crystal that turns two near-infrared photons into one visible photon — deep-tissue imaging and optogenetics. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Fluorescent nanodiamond — Diamond with nitrogen-vacancy centres that glow red and sense temperature and magnetic fields. (≈ 2–20 nm)
Dye-doped silica nanoparticle — Silica sphere packed with dye molecules — much brighter than single dyes (Cornell dots). (≈ 2–20 nm)
Polymer dot (Pdot) — A nanoparticle of conjugated, light-emitting polymer — extremely bright. (≈ 2–20 nm)
AIE dot — Dyes that glow only when aggregated (aggregation-induced emission) packed into a nanoparticle. (≈ 2–20 nm)

Silica nanoparticles 18

Mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) — A silica sphere riddled with 2–3 nm pores that soak up drug molecules; cut open to see the channels. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Drug-loaded mesoporous silica — Drug molecules packed into the pores of an MSN. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Mesoporous silica releasing drug — Drug diffusing out of open pores once a trigger removes the gates. (≈ 50–200 nm)
MSN with cyclodextrin nanovalves — Cyclodextrin rings threaded on stalks block each pore until a pH, light or enzyme trigger frees them. (≈ 50–200 nm)
MSN with protein caps — Proteins (e.g. cytochrome c) plug the pores and are cut off by intracellular triggers. (≈ 50–200 nm)
MSN capped with gold nanoparticles — Small gold particles sit on the pore openings as removable lids. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Protocell (lipid-coated MSN) — A mesoporous silica core wrapped in a supported lipid bilayer — combines high loading with a cell-like surface. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Polymer-gated MSN — A responsive polymer layer keeps drug in until pH or temperature changes. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Dendritic large-pore silica — Centre-radial, cone-shaped pores wide enough for proteins and nucleic acids. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Wormhole mesoporous silica — Disordered, interconnected pores. (≈ 50–200 nm)
SBA-15 silica rod — A rod-shaped particle with hexagonally arranged channels running its length. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Hollow mesoporous silica — A porous silica shell around a big empty cavity — very high loading. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Rattle-type (yolk–shell) silica — A movable core inside a hollow porous silica shell. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Solid silica nanoparticle (Stöber) — A smooth, dense silica sphere grown by the Stöber method. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Mesoporous silica (small pores) — Narrow 2 nm pores for small-molecule drugs. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Mesoporous silica (large pores) — Wide pores that fit proteins and siRNA. (≈ 50–200 nm)
siRNA-loaded mesoporous silica — Large-pore silica carrying siRNA, sealed with a cationic polymer. (≈ 50–200 nm)
Targeted mesoporous silica — PEGylated MSN with targeting peptides. (≈ 50–200 nm)

Carbon & 2D nanomaterials 21

Graphene sheet — A single layer of carbon atoms in a honeycomb lattice — the thinnest, strongest material known.
Few-layer graphene — Three stacked graphene sheets, 0.335 nm apart.
Graphene oxide (GO) — Wrinkled graphene decorated with oxygen groups (epoxy, hydroxyl, carboxyl) and holes; disperses in water and adsorbs drugs.
Hexagonal boron nitride — "White graphene": a honeycomb of alternating boron and nitrogen.
Black phosphorus (phosphorene) — A puckered honeycomb of phosphorus that degrades in the body — studied for photothermal therapy.
Carbon nanotube (armchair, 8,8) — A rolled-up graphene cylinder; armchair tubes conduct like metals.
Carbon nanotube (zigzag, 12,0) — Zigzag single-walled nanotube.
Carbon nanotube (chiral, 10,5) — A chiral nanotube — its hexagons spiral around the axis.
Multi-walled carbon nanotube — Concentric nanotubes nested like tree rings.
PEGylated carbon nanotube — A nanotube wrapped with PEG to make it water-dispersible and biocompatible.
Drug-loaded carbon nanotube — Aromatic drugs (like doxorubicin) stick to the nanotube surface by π-stacking.
Fullerene C₆₀ (buckyball) — Sixty carbons in a football of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons.
Fullerenol C₆₀(OH)ₙ — Water-soluble fullerene with hydroxyl groups — a strong antioxidant.
Endohedral metallofullerene (Gd@C₆₀) — A metal atom trapped inside a fullerene cage — a safer MRI contrast agent.
Carbon nano-onion — Nested fullerene-like carbon shells.
Carbon nanohorn aggregate — Cone-shaped graphene horns clustered like a dahlia flower.
MoS₂ nanosheet — A sandwich of molybdenum between two sulfur layers — a 2D semiconductor and photothermal agent.
Few-layer MoS₂ — Stacked MoS₂ layers.
MXene (Ti₃C₂Tₓ) nanosheet — Layers of titanium carbide with surface terminations — conductive, hydrophilic and photothermal.
Layered double hydroxide (LDH) — Positively charged metal-hydroxide sheets that hold drugs or DNA between them.
Nanoclay (montmorillonite) — Aluminosilicate sheets with cations in between — fillers for gels and films.

MOFs & inorganic crystals 21

ZIF-8 (MOF) crystal — Zinc–imidazolate framework grown as rhombic dodecahedra; dissolves in acid, so it releases cargo in tumours and endosomes.
ZIF-8 framework (inside view) — The porous zinc–imidazolate network inside a ZIF-8 crystal.
Enzyme@ZIF-8 biocomposite — Proteins and enzymes trapped in ZIF-8 survive heat and solvents (biomimetic mineralisation).
UiO-66 (MOF) crystal — A very stable zirconium MOF grown as octahedra. Looks the same as: MIL-100(Fe) nanoparticle, TiO₂ (anatase) nanoparticle.
UiO-66 framework (inside view) — Zr₆ oxo-clusters each linked to twelve neighbours by terephthalate linkers.
HKUST-1 (Cu-BTC) crystal — Blue copper paddlewheel MOF crystals.
MOF-5 framework — The classic cubic zinc–terephthalate framework.
Prussian blue nanoparticle — Deep-blue iron cyanide cubes — an approved antidote and a photothermal and MRI agent.
Covalent organic framework sheet — A 2D-crystalline organic network with regular hexagonal pores.
Nanorod (hydroxyapatite, zno) — The mineral of bone and teeth, as hexagonal nanorods. Looks the same as: ZnO nanorod.
Hydroxyapatite needle cluster — Needle-like apatite crystals as they form in bone and in bioceramics.
Calcium phosphate nanoparticle — Biodegradable calcium phosphate that dissolves in acidic endosomes — a gene and vaccine carrier.
CaCO₃ vaterite microsphere — A porous calcium-carbonate sphere used as a template and carrier; dissolves at low pH. (≈ 1–5 µm)
Calcite crystal — The stable rhombohedral form of calcium carbonate.
Bioactive glass nanoparticle — Silicate glass that bonds to bone and releases healing ions.
Cerium oxide nanozyme — Ceria flips between Ce³⁺ and Ce⁴⁺ to scavenge reactive oxygen species like antioxidant enzymes.
ZnO tetrapod — Four zinc-oxide arms growing from one core.
MnO₂ nanoflower — Manganese-dioxide sheets that consume tumour glutathione and make oxygen from H₂O₂.
Copper sulfide nanoplate — CuS plates that absorb near-infrared light for photothermal therapy.
Selenium nanoparticle — Red elemental selenium spheres with antioxidant and anticancer activity.
Iron MOF framework (inside view) — A cubic iron-based framework with drug in its cages.

Exosomes & biomimetic particles 16

Exosome (extracellular vesicle) — A small vesicle released by cells, carrying tetraspanins (CD9, CD63, CD81) in its membrane and microRNA, mRNA and proteins inside. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Engineered exosome loaded with siRNA — An exosome loaded with therapeutic siRNA by electroporation. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Drug-loaded exosome — An exosome carrying a small-molecule drug. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Targeted exosome (Lamp2b–peptide) — An exosome displaying a targeting peptide fused to Lamp2b. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Microvesicle — A larger, irregular vesicle budded directly from the plasma membrane. (≈ 100–1000 nm)
Apoptotic body — A big membrane blob released by a dying cell, packed with DNA fragments and proteins. (≈ 1–5 µm)
Bacterial outer membrane vesicle — A vesicle shed by Gram-negative bacteria carrying LPS and porins — a vaccine platform. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Plant-derived nanovesicle — Exosome-like vesicles from edible plants (ginger, grapefruit) used for oral delivery. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Red-blood-cell membrane–coated nanoparticle — A PLGA core cloaked in red-cell membrane; CD47 tells macrophages "don't eat me", so it circulates for days. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Platelet membrane–coated nanoparticle — Platelet membrane steers the particle to damaged vessels and bacteria. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Cancer-cell membrane–coated nanoparticle — Coated with tumour-cell membrane for homotypic targeting and as a cancer vaccine. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Macrophage membrane–coated nanoparticle — Macrophage membrane lets the particle home to inflammation and soak up toxins and cytokines. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Stem-cell membrane–coated nanoparticle — Mesenchymal stem-cell membrane for homing to injured tissue. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Hybrid membrane–coated nanoparticle — Fused red-cell and platelet membranes combine long circulation with targeting. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Membrane-coated gold nanoparticle — A gold core wrapped in cell membrane for photothermal therapy. (≈ 30–150 nm)
Membrane-coated mesoporous silica — Drug-loaded silica core camouflaged with cell membrane. (≈ 30–150 nm)

Protein cages, VLPs & lipoproteins 16

Virus-like particle (VLP) — A virus capsid without the viral genome — the basis of the HPV and hepatitis B vaccines and a carrier for drugs and RNA. (≈ 20–60 nm)
Small VLP (T = 1) — A minimal 60-subunit capsid.
HPV-like VLP (vaccine) — An L1 capsid made of 72 pentamers — the Gardasil vaccine antigen.
MS2 bacteriophage VLP with RNA — The MS2 coat-protein shell packaging RNA — a carrier for RNA delivery.
Drug-loaded VLP — A VLP with drug inside and targeting peptides displayed outside.
Hepatitis B core VLP — Spiky core-protein dimers forming the HBV capsid; used in vaccines and display platforms.
Encapsulin nanocompartment — A bacterial protein shell that packages enzymes inside — a natural nanoreactor.
Designed protein nanoparticle (I53-50) — A computationally designed two-component icosahedral cage displaying antigens — the basis of the SKYCovione vaccine.
Ferritin nanocage — 24 four-helix bundles assemble into a hollow sphere storing iron; also used to carry drugs and display vaccine antigens. (12 nm outer)
Drug-loaded apoferritin — Ferritin emptied of iron and refilled with drug; binds the transferrin receptor (TfR1) on cancer cells.
Vault particle — A barrel-shaped ribonucleoprotein particle, among the largest in cells, explored as a natural carrier. (≈ 70 × 40 nm)
Serum albumin — The most abundant blood protein: three domains forming a heart shape, with pockets that carry fatty acids and drugs. (≈ 8 nm)
HDL particle (spherical) — "Good cholesterol": a lipid core wrapped by phospholipids and apolipoprotein A-I belts. (≈ 8–12 nm)
Discoidal HDL — Nascent HDL: a disc of bilayer held by two apoA-I belts.
LDL particle — "Bad cholesterol": a larger lipid particle wrapped by one huge apolipoprotein B-100. (≈ 22 nm)
Nanodisc with membrane protein — A bilayer disc held by membrane scaffold proteins, holding a membrane protein for structural studies.

DNA & RNA nanostructures 19

DNA origami (rectangle) — A long scaffold strand folded by hundreds of staple strands into a flat sheet of parallel helices joined by crossovers. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA origami (cylinder model) — The same origami drawn as one cylinder per helix — the common schematic. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA origami with capture strands — Single-stranded handles on an origami sheet position nanoparticles or proteins with nanometre precision. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA origami (triangle) — Three trapezoidal arms joined into a triangle. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA six-helix bundle — Six helices packed in a honeycomb ring — a stiff rod. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA nanotube — Twelve helices around a hollow channel — can span membranes as a pore. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA origami box (closed) — Six origami faces folded into a box that holds cargo. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA origami box (lid open) — A DNA key strand unlocks the lid and releases the cargo — slide "Open" to animate. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA nanorobot (closed) — A hexagonal barrel locked by aptamers; it opens only when the aptamers bind their target on a cell (Douglas et al., 2012). (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA nanorobot (open) — The nanorobot opened by its target, exposing the payload. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA tetrahedron — Four strands form a rigid tetrahedral cage that cells take up readily; can carry intercalated doxorubicin. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA cube — A cube of twelve double-helix edges. (≈ 10–100 nm)
Holliday junction — Four double helices meeting at a branch point — the recombination intermediate and a DNA-nanotech building block. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA star (multi-arm junction) — A branched DNA motif used to build lattices and hydrogels. (≈ 10–100 nm)
pRNA three-way junction — An ultra-stable RNA motif from phage phi29 used to build RNA nanoparticles. (≈ 10–100 nm)
RNA nanoring — Six RNA helices joined by kissing loops into a hexagonal ring that can carry six siRNAs. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA nanoflower — Rolling-circle amplification makes long DNA that crumples into flower-like particles. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA hydrogel — Branched DNA junctions linked by sticky ends into a soft network. (≈ 10–100 nm)
DNA walker — A DNA "walker" stepping along a track of stator strands, powered by strand displacement. (≈ 10–100 nm)

Polyplexes, nanogels & conjugates 20

PEI–DNA polyplex — Cationic polyethylenimine condenses plasmid DNA into a compact toroid that cells take up — the "proton sponge" carrier.
PEG–PEI polyplex — A polyplex with PEG chains to reduce aggregation and toxicity.
Chitosan–siRNA polyplex — Natural cationic chitosan binding siRNA.
Poly(β-amino ester) polyplex — Biodegradable PBAE polymers for gene delivery.
Targeted polyplex — PEGylated polyplex with transferrin for receptor-mediated uptake.
Nanogel (swollen) — A crosslinked polymer network swollen with water; drugs and proteins sit in the mesh. Slide "Swelling" to collapse it.
Nanogel (collapsed) — The same nanogel shrunk by a stimulus (temperature, pH), squeezing out its cargo.
PNIPAM microgel — Thermo-responsive gel particle that collapses above 32 °C. (≈ 0.2–2 µm)
Hyaluronic acid nanogel — A nanogel of hyaluronic acid that targets CD44 on cancer cells.
Protein nanogel — Proteins wrapped in a thin crosslinked polymer shell for intracellular delivery.
Coacervate droplet — A membraneless droplet formed by oppositely charged polymers — a model of protocells and biomolecular condensates.
Antibody–drug conjugate (ADC) — An antibody carrying cytotoxic drugs on cleavable linkers (e.g. trastuzumab deruxtecan). Change the drug-to-antibody ratio.
ADC with DAR 8 — A high drug-load ADC with eight payloads per antibody.
ADC releasing its payload — Lysosomal enzymes cut the linkers and free the drug inside the cancer cell.
Antibody–oligonucleotide conjugate — An antibody carrying siRNA or antisense oligonucleotides to target tissues beyond the liver.
PEGylated protein — A therapeutic protein with PEG chains attached (e.g. peginterferon, pegfilgrastim) to last longer in the blood.
Bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE) — Two single-chain antibody fragments joined by a linker: one grabs T cells (CD3), one grabs a tumour antigen (e.g. blinatumomab).
Polymer–drug conjugate — Drug hung from a water-soluble polymer (HPMA, PEG, polyglutamate) through cleavable linkers.
Peptide–drug conjugate — A tumour-targeting peptide linked to a drug (e.g. Lutathera-type radioligands).
PROTAC (target–E3 ligase complex) — A two-headed molecule that brings a target protein to an E3 ligase so it gets ubiquitinated and destroyed.

Microparticles, bubbles & micromotors 17

Ultrasound microbubble — A gas bubble wrapped in a lipid monolayer — an ultrasound contrast agent (Definity, SonoVue). (≈ 1–10 µm)
Targeted microbubble — A microbubble with antibodies for molecular ultrasound imaging. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Drug-loaded microbubble — Drug carried in the shell and released when ultrasound pops the bubble. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Microbubble cavitation (sonoporation) — Ultrasound makes the bubble collapse, opening cell membranes and blood–brain barrier — slide "Cavitation" to animate. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Nanobubble — A sub-micron gas bubble that can leave leaky tumour vessels. (≈ 100–500 nm)
Phase-change nanodroplet — A liquid perfluorocarbon droplet that vaporises into a bubble under ultrasound or laser. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Layer-by-layer microcapsule — A hollow capsule made by coating and then dissolving a template — each polyelectrolyte layer a few nanometres thick. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Colloidosome — A capsule whose shell is made of packed colloidal particles. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Pickering emulsion droplet — An oil droplet stabilised by solid nanoparticles instead of surfactant. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Cell-laden alginate bead — Living cells (e.g. pancreatic islets) protected inside an alginate gel bead. (≈ 0.3–1 mm)
PLGA depot microsphere — A biodegradable microsphere that releases a peptide drug for weeks to months (e.g. Lupron Depot). (≈ 20–100 µm)
Janus micromotor — A sphere half-coated in platinum that decomposes peroxide into oxygen bubbles and swims. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Tubular microjet — A rolled-up tube with platinum inside that shoots bubbles out the back. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Magnetic helical microrobot — A corkscrew steered and spun by a rotating magnetic field — like a bacterial flagellum. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Red-blood-cell hitchhiking — Nanoparticles stuck on red cells ride along and are handed off to the first capillary bed (e.g. lungs). (≈ 1–10 µm)
Cell with a polymer backpack — A disc-shaped "backpack" stuck to a macrophage or T cell carries drug into inflamed tissue. (≈ 1–10 µm)
Bacteria-driven microrobot — A swimming bacterium towing drug-loaded nanoparticles into tumours. (≈ 1–10 µm)